RSS 1.0College of Agriculture, Life & Environmental Sciences (CALES) Publications
ABOUT THE COLLECTIONS
The College of Agriculture, Life & Environmental Sciences was established as the University of Arizona's first academic unit in 1885, subsequent to the Morrill Act of 1862 that offered funding to states or territories with a land grant university. The Hatch Act of 1887 required land-grant universities to share research findings through Experiment Stations; the University of Arizona Cooperative Extension was created after the Smith-Lever Act in 1914.
These collections contain historical and current publications from the University of Arizona Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension. Publications include Experiment Station reports, bulletins, and Timely Hints for Farmers; Cooperative Extension publications on Animal Systems, Consumer Education, Farm Management and Safety, Food Safety, Nutrition and Health, Gardening/Home Horticulture, Insects and Pest Management, Marketing and Retailing, Natural Resources and Environment, Plant Diseases, Plant Production/Crops, Water, and Youth and Family. Commodity based agricultural reports, known as "Production Reports", and Arid Lands research publications are also included in the collection.
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Contact CALES Publications at pubs@cals.arizona.edu, or visit the CALES Publications website.
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Livestock Hauling ConsiderationsTransporting livestock, of any kind, presents a host of challenges that need to be considered before a person ever hooks up to any kind of trailer. Beef Quality Assurance (BQA) now offers a course for producers to take that goes over the various aspects of transporting livestock, especially cattle. This new course is called Beef Quality Assurance Transportation (BQAT) and is offered through the University of Arizona Cooperative Extension. Before hauling livestock, producers should consider some key elements before they begin. What am I hauling? Where am I going? And finally, how am I going to get there safely? These and various other elements need to be considered to successfully haul livestock and will be addressed here.
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Foundations of Virtual Fencing: Economics of Virtual Fence (VF) SystemsThis analysis explores the economic considerations of investing in virtual fence (VF) systems, examining their application for representative cow-calf operations under different operating conditions. Virtual fencing (VF) is a tool for livestock management that uses collars and a radio or cellular systems to influence the movement of livestock using auditory and electrical cues (Antaya et al. 2024). Users program the system to establish invisible barriers on a landscape. The system detects the location of animals and if animals approach or cross a “virtual” fence, they receive an auditory or electrical cue encouraging them to move away from the barrier. VF systems have the potential to offset physical fencing costs, enable adoption of adaptive management practices (Boyd et al. 2022; Boyd et al. 2023; Golinski et al. 2023; Verdon et al. 2021), and save ranchers time in locating animals, among other benefits (Campbell et al. 2018; Boyd et al. 2022; Schillings et al. 2024). Commercial VF systems have varying fee structures and require labor to operate which is an additional cost of adoption. Cost and economies of scale are factors that affect livestock producers’willingness to adopt technologies (Pruitt et al. 2012; Lima et al. 2018).
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Foundations of Virtual Fencing: Specifics on Collar Deployment by CompanyA virtual fence (VF) system typically consists of three main components: (1) a software interface that allows users to draw VF lines and define boundary zones on a digital map, establishing designated grazing areas and exclusion zones; (2) a GPS-enabled collar fitted around an animal’s neck, equipped with technology to track movement and deliver auditory and electrical cues to guide or restrict livestock distribution; and (3) base stations and/or cellular towers that facilitate communication between the software and the collars. Although there are similarities across systems, each company offers a distinct collar design. This educational material provides details on the attachment mechanisms, collar assembly, required deployment tools, and recommendations for achieving proper collar fit for each vendor.
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The Modified Grazing Response Index – an improved planning tool for rotational grazing of livestockThe Grazing Response Index (GRI) is a simple and effective grazing evaluation tool that was initially developed at Colorado State University by Floyd Reed, Roy Roath, and David Bradford in 1999. The goal of the GRI is to rapidly assess the effects of grazing and provide data to aid in the development of grazing plans for the following year. While the GRI has proven to be simple and effective grazing assessment tool, updates to its basic framework are needed to reflect recent scientific findings and broaden its applicability in grazing regions where year-round grazing is typical. One notable limitation of the GRI is that it does not account for dormant season grazing, which is common in many southwestern rangelands systems where winters are milder. As a result, we propose the Modified Grazing Response Index (MGRI), an updated version of the GRI, tailored to the needs of the southwestern United States and other areas that may have year-round grazing.
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Comparing the Ignitability of Mulch Materials for a Firewise LandscapeEight different landscape mulches were tested for their flammability using a propane torch, charcoal briquette, and a cigarette at two different times of the year. Three randomized compete blocks with eight one square meter plots were tested at three locations; Tucson, Prescott, and Flagstaff, Arizona. Each of the mulches was subjected to the heat of a handheld propane torch (15 seconds), a glowing charcoal briquette (five minutes), and a lit cigarette (until burned out). We found that the least dense mulches (pine needles and straw) burned rapidly when subjected to the torch and ignited after the briquette was removed. The medium density mulches (pine bark nuggets and wood chips) had low flame lengths and smoldered. Heavy density mulches (garden compost and shredded bark) only smoldered. The decomposed granite and sod did not ignite or smolder.
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Nonprofits And Their Impact In Communities Cochise CountyNonprofit organizations are the quiet architects of American community life, shaping the social, economic, and cultural fabric of the nation. While their contributions often receive less attention than government programs or private enterprise, nonprofits fulfill essential roles in addressing unmet needs and advancing the common good. From food banks and health clinics to arts councils and educational foundations, these organizations provide critical services, foster resilience, and strengthen civic life. This article examines the multifaceted role of nonprofits in shaping community well-being. It highlights their economic contributions, influence on public policy, and capacity to advance social transformation—drawing on national data as well as regional insights from Arizona and Cochise County.
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Groundwater Fluoride Exposure and Potential Effects on Arizona LivestockFluoride (F-) is a naturally occurring mineral commonly found in surface and groundwater. It is present in water sources due to the erosion of F- containing rocks and soil found throughout the United States. While chronic, long-term F- exposure in livestock, particularly cattle, may lead to dental and skeletal fluorosis, the risk to human health through meat consumption remains low, though uncertain due to limited previous research. Despite this limitation, previous work has demonstrated that chronic F- accumulation in cattle, primarily through water, feed, forage, and crops, is an important consideration for livestock health. Due to its widespread occurrence in groundwater through Arizona, continued research is needed to address knowledge gaps regarding F- accumulation in cattle and refine our knowledge of how to effectively diminish risks to maintain livestock health and well-being.
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Manure and Composted Manure Use in Arizona AgricultureManure and composted manure have long been recognized as valuable resources for building healthy soils. When used thoughtfully, they contribute organic matter, supply essential plant nutrients, and support nutrient cycling. However, their use also requires careful management to avoid unintended impacts such as introducing weed seeds, spreading pathogens, or altering soil chemistry through salt or nutrient buildup. Understanding these risks and applying best management practices ensures that manure and compost remain beneficial tools for soil health and agricultural production. Arizona soils present unique challenges that make manure and composted manure especially relevant. In the state’s hot, arid climate, organic matter decomposes rapidly, leaving many Arizona soils with minimal organic matter for nutrient cycling (Bliss, 2003). These soils are often alkaline, with pH values ranging from 7.0 to 8.8, and may contain hardened layers of calcium carbonate (caliche). Although mineral-rich and geologically diverse, the high pH can limit plant uptake of micronutrients such as iron, manganese, and zinc. This combination of low organic matter and alkaline chemistry means that soil amendments, such as manure or composted manure, can provide significant benefits.
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Crop Evapotranspiration in Organic Lettuce Production as a Water-Saving Strategy under Sensor-Guided Irrigation in the Lower Colorado River BasinThis study was conducted at the University of Arizona, Yuma Agricultural Center, to quantify and compare the seasonal crop evapotranspiration (ETc) of organic and conventional iceberg lettuce under sensor-based and traditional irrigation scheduling, with and without biostimulant applications..
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Projected Temperature Increase Across the Cotton Belt Region of the United StatesThis article outlines projections for maximum and minimum air temperatures averaging across nine selected GCMs under four Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) scenarios: SSP1-2.6 ("Sustainability" pathway with low greenhouse gas emissions), SSP2-4.5 (moderate future warming), SSP3-7.0 (medium to high level of greenhouse gas emissions), and SSP5-8.5 (high greenhouse gas emissions scenario). The projections are provided for five sites across the US Cotton Belt: Maricopa, AZ; Halfway, TX; Chillicothe, TX; Camilla, GA; and Lewiston-Woodville, NC, where key research and extension centers linked with the University of Arizona, Texas A&M University, Texas Tech University, the University of Georgia, and the University of North Carolina, respectively are located.
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Arizona Agricultural Enterprise Budgets: Maricopa County’s 2025 Field Crops’ Production BudgetsThis report estimates the typical economic costs and returns for growing major crops, including alfalfa, barley, corn silage, cotton, sorghum grain, sorghum silage, durum wheat, and winter wheat in Maricopa County, Arizona. The Arizona Agricultural Enterprise Budgets are estimated based on a representative farm and its related cropping operations in a determined location; numbers are reported on a per-unit basis.
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Arizona Agricultural Enterprise Budgets: Pinal County’s 2025 Field Crops’ Production BudgetsThis report estimates the typical economic costs and returns for growing major crops, including alfalfa, barley, corn silage, cotton, sorghum grain, sorghum silage, durum wheat, and winter wheat in Pinal County, Arizona. The Arizona Agricultural Enterprise Budgets are estimated based on a representative farm and its related cropping operations in a determined location; numbers are reported on a per-unit basis.
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Performance Evaluation of Nitrate-Nitrogen Sensing Technologies in Organic and Conventional Iceberg Lettuce Systems under Subsurface Drip IrrigationEfficient nitrogen management in arid agricultural regions such as Yuma County, Arizona requires close coordination of irrigation and fertilizer applications because water movement within the soil profile directly affects nitrogen dynamics and plant uptake efficiency. This study evaluated near-real-time nitrate-N sensing technology under organic and conventional iceberg lettuce (Lactuca sativa) production systems using subsurface drip irrigation. Field trials were conducted during the Fall 2024–Spring 2025 growing season at the University of Arizona Yuma Agricultural Center on a Gila silt loam soil.
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Guidelines for Asian Citrus Psyllid and Citrus Greening Disease Management in Commercial Citrus ProductionCitrus growers are essential to protecting Arizona’s citrus industry from the spread of HLB. Consistent monitoring for ACP and early disease symptoms, combined with timely and effective management practices, can significantly reduce the risk of infection. Reporting infected trees to the appropriate authorities and following recommended control strategies can help prevent the spread of both the vector and the disease. Cooperation of growers and pest control advisors is vital; HLB management is most successful when efforts are coordinated across regions. By staying informed and proactive, we can help preserve the health, productivity, and future of citrus groves across the state. Your actions make a lasting impact.
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2024-2025 Growth, Physiology, Yield, and Quality Evaluation of Small Grain Varieties in Central ArizonaChoosing an appropriate crop variety is critical for farmers, especially in Arizona’s small-grain production systems. There exists considerable variation among small grain varieties, with each displaying distinct levels of adaptability and performance traits that ultimately affect the profitability of farming ventures. The performance of varieties can fluctuate significantly from year to year, highlighting the importance of conducting evaluations across multiple site-years to assess a variety's yield potential accurately.
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Foundations of Virtual Fencing: Collar Deployment BasicsVirtual fence (VF) is a management tool that uses invisible barriers, established using Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates, that influence livestock movement with a combination of auditory and electrical cues. A VF system includes the following elements: (1) a software interface to draw VF lines and the boundary zone on a digital map, which defines the grazing area and exclusion zone; (2) a GPS- enabled collar fitted around the circumference of an animal’s neck or other wearable device that contains technology to track livestock movement and deliver auditory and electrical cues to influence or limit livestock distribution; and (3) base stations and/or cellular signal to transmit and receive communication between the software and wearable device (Antaya et al., 2024a; Ehlert et al., 2024). In this fact sheet, we will provide an overview of the components that make up a VF collar. Then, we will focus on collar deployment, the process to prepare for collaring events, and suggest strategies to safely place VF collars on livestock while ensuring proper fit.
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Economic Contribution of Yuma County AgricultureConducted by the Department of Agriculture & Resource Economic and the University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, this study presents an analysis of the economic importance of agriculture and agribusiness in Yuma County, Arizona. In 2015, the Yuma County Agriculture Water Coalition published A Case Study in Efficiency – Agriculture and Water Use in the Yuma, Arizona Area (YCAWC, 2015). The report characterized the then-current state of agricultural water use in Yuma County and detailed how the region has come to be a key agricultural area, producing high-value specialty crops meanwhile maintaining high levels of water use efficiency while operating in a desert environment. This study presents an update to portions of the 2015 study which examined the economic contributions of agriculture to the Yuma County economy. The analysis is divided into four parts Background information on agriculture in Yuma County, including top crops and seasonality of production. Economic base analysis evaluating the extent of Yuma County’s specialization in agriculture and agribusiness. Water productivity analysis quantifying the region’s agricultural water use efficiency in comparison to other areas. Economic contribution analysis estimating the total economic activity supported by agriculture and agribusiness in Yuma County in 2022. The study considers agriculture as including on-farm production of crops, livestock, and livestock products; agricultural support services; agricultural input suppliers; and university-linked agricultural research and Extension.
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Direct Farm Marketing & Tourism HandbookThis is a manual intended to help farm and ranch operators and other individuals who grow or process food products market their products and services directly to the consumer. It is one way of ‘adding value’ to agriculture before products leave the farm. Some forms of direct marketing are integrally linked with tourism in the local community. This manual also explains these connections and provides information on how to enhance sales and other related tourism activities and services.
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Limitations to Estimating Production on Rangelands“Each ranch is different from every other ranch, each pasture is different from every other pasture, each pasture is different every year, and the pasture changes throughout the year.” - Larry Howery, UA Cooperative Extension Rangeland Management Extension Specialist (retired) Rangeland management is a difficult venture requiring decision-makers to use various ecological data and assessments to evaluate continually changing conditions. Estimating aboveground net primary production (ANPP) is a frequently used tool for rangeland management and monitoring. ANPP, or production, is the amount of aboveground plant biomass accumulated over a specific time period (Byrne et al. 2011). Rangeland or forage production is typically measured annually after the growing season and is often used to calculate or re-evaluate carrying capacity, stocking rates, or as an indicator of ecological condition, etc. There are various methods to collect production data ranging from direct methods, indirect methods, and non-destructive methods such as remote sensing. Traditional ground-based methods are often labor-intensive and insufficient to collect reliable estimates because vegetation growth is highly variable and can exceed 40% variation on an interannual basis (Reeves et al. 2019). Despite the popularity of collecting production data for range management purposes, inaccuracy and sampling errors from each method should be carefully considered before implementing management decisions based on production data alone. Range managers and producers should be aware of the limitations of using production data to inform management decisions.
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Perfiles de Economía Agrícola de los Condados de Arizona: Condado de Yuma, AZ (2022)El condado de Yuma está ubicado en la esquina suroeste de Arizona y limita al oeste con California y el río Colorado, al norte con el condado de La Paz y al este con los condados de Maricopa y Pima. Es el sexto condado más poblado del estado, y casi el 85% de la población vive en áreas urbanas, como la ciudad de Yuma. Las principales industrias del condado de Yuma incluyen la agricultura y el turismo. Yuma es un destino popular para los visitantes estacionales debido a sus suaves temperaturas invernales. El condado alberga dos bases militares, otra importante fuente de empleo. De hecho, el empleo en los gobiernos federal, estatal y local representa más del 20% del empleo del condado, cifra significativamente superior al promedio estatal. A pesar de tener una pequeña proporción de la superficie del condado en fincas (6%), la agricultura desempeña un papel fundamental en su. De hecho, la agricultura agrícola representa más del 14% del PIB del condado y genera directamente al menos una quinta parte de todos los empleos de la industria privada. El condado de Yuma representa aproximadamente un tercio de los ingresos agrícolas totales de Arizona y más del 50% del PIB agrícola de Arizona (agricultura en fincas).
