This dissertation describes the design, development, and field validation of a concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) solar energy system. The challenges of creating a highly efficient yet low-cost system architecture come from many sources. The solid-state physics of photovoltaic devices present fundamental limits to photoelectron conversion efficiency, while the electrical and thermal characteristics of widely available materials limit the design arena. Furthermore, the need for high solar spectral throughput, evenly concentrated sunlight, and tolerance to off-axis pointing places strict illumination requirements on the optical design. To be commercially viable, the cost associated with all components must be minimized so that when taken together, the absolute installed cost of the system in kWh is lower than any other solar energy method, and competitive with fossil fuel power generation. The work detailed herein focuses specifically on unique optical design and illumination concepts discovered when developing a viable commercial CPV system. By designing from the ground up with the fundamental physics of photovoltaic devices and the required system tolerances in mind, a select range of optical designs are determined and modeled. Component cost analysis, assembly effort, and development time frame further influence design choices to arrive at a final optical system design. When coupled with the collecting mirror, the final optical hardware unit placed at the focus generates more than 800W, yet is small and lightweight enough to hold in your hand. After fabrication and installation, the completed system's illumination, spectral, and thermal performance is validated with on-sun operational testing.

The objective of this thesis is to describe the development, construction and use of a new tool for optical coherent transient spectroscopy. The new tool is a frequency-switched CO₂ laser. A highly stable laser design was modified to include an intra cavity electro-optic modulator, which al lows the output of the laser to be frequency-switched. The frequency modulated output is used in spectroscopic experiments whose goals are the determination of decay rates for infrared moIecuIar transitions. The use of a frequency-switched laser is the most prom i sing means of making such measurements on nonpoIar molecules. The use of an electro-optic crystal inside a laser cavity introduces a number of fundamental problems which must be overcome before the instrument can be used to make useful spectroscopic measurements. These problems are brought about by the need for a stable laser amplitude and frequency output. The development of a novel stabilization technique to overcome these problems is documented in this thesis. Also included in this thesis is a description of the microcomputer and associated electronics necessary to integrate the laser into an experimental apparatus capable of performing signal averaging and background subtraction on raw time resolved data. The final chapters of this work describe experiments and results of measurements of the scattering cross sect ions of a nonpolar molecule with rare gas perturbers. The nonpolar molecule is SF₆ and the rare gas collision partners are Helium, Argon, and Xenon. The results indicate that the scattering cross section for state changing collisions displays a mass dependance predicted by classical collision theory. However, the measured cross sections for elastic velocity-changing collisions appears to be mass independent, which is at variance with theory.

This dissertation examines the suitability of Display-Processor (DP) image computers for image enhancement and restoration tasks. Because the major architectural feature of the DP devices is their ability to rapidly evaluate finite impulse response (FIR) convolutions, much of the study focusses on the use of spatial-domain FIR convolutions to approximate Fourier-domain filtering. When the enhancement task requires the evaluation of only a single convolution, it is important that the FIR kernel used to implement the convolution is designed so that the resulting output is a good approximation of the desired output. A Minimum-Mean-Squared-Error design criterion is introduced for the purpose of FIR kernel design and its usefulness is demonstrated by showing some results of its use. If the restoration or enhancement task requires multiple convolutions in an iterative algorithm, it is important to understand how the truncation of the kernel to a finite region of support will affect the convergence properties of an algorithm and the output of the iterative sequence. These questions are examined for a limited class of nonlinear restoration algorithms. Because FIR convolutions are most efficiently performed on computing machines that have limited precision and are usually limited to performing fixed-point arithmetic, the dissertation also examines the effects of roundoff error on output images that have been computed using fixed point math. The number of bits that are needed to represent the data during a computation is algorithm dependent, but for a limited class of algorithms, it is shown that 12 bits are sufficient. Finally, those architectural features in a DP that are necessary for useful enhancement and restoration operations are identified.

A novel optical surface testing method termed the grating-slit test is demonstrated to provide quantitative measurements and a large dynamic measurement range. Although it uses a grating and a slit, as in the traditional Ronchi test, the grating-slit test is different in that the grating is used as the object and the slit is located at the observation plane. This is an arrangement that appears not to have been previously discussed in the optical testing literature. The grating-slit test produces fringes in accordance with the transverse ray aberrations of an aberrated wavefront. By using a spatial light modulator as the incoherent sinusoidal intensity grating it is possible to modulate the grating and produce phase shifting to make a quantitative measurement. The method becomes feasible given the superior intensity grayscale ability and highly incoherent illumination of the spatial light modulator used. Since the grating is used as the object, there are no significant diffraction effects that usually limit the Ronchi test. A geometrical and a detailed physical analysis of the grating-slit test are presented that agree in the appropriate limit. In order to convert the measured transverse ray aberrations to the surface figure error, a surface slope sensitivity method is developed. This method uses a perturbation algorithm to reconstruct the surface figure error from the measured transverse ray aberration function by exact ray tracing. The algorithm takes into account the pupil distortion and maps the transverse ray aberration from the coordinate system of the observation plane to the coordinate system of the surface under test. A numerical simulation proves the validity of the algorithm. To demonstrate the dynamic range of the grating-slit testing method, two optical surfaces are measured. The first surface is a polished spherical mirror with 0.6 waves of aberration as measured with an interferometer. Using the concept of transverse ray aberration separation, the first surface is measured without a strict alignment requirement. The second surface is a concave ground optical surface with 275 waves of astigmatism. The measurements from the grating-slit test yield useable surface figure information that is in agreement with the results from other testing methods.

Aspheric surface testing would be greatly expedited by eliminating the need for a null condition. To test in a non-null configuration, an interferometer must be capable of measuring steep wavefronts. These wavefronts contain aberrations introduced by the interferometer optics, so non-null measurements must be calibrated. Sub-Nyquist interferometry (SNI) enables measurement of large wavefronts. A simple Twyman-Green interferometer was constructed to conduct SNI and to explore the calibration problem. The characteristics of the interferometer were investigated, and wavefronts with several hundred waves of departure from a reference sphere were recorded and successfully reconstructed. A defocused sphere was used to demonstrate the need for calibration and to serve as a test subject for the calibration study. Reverse optimization was used to calibrate wavefront measurements. Experimental wavefront data were entered into the merit function of a lens design program, and optimization was employed to retrieve the prescription of the interferometer and the part shape. To simulate interference in the design program, the reference wavefront was stored in a Zernike phase surface on the image plane. The multiple configuration mode of the program was utilized to optimize several test configurations simultaneously, providing additional information to overcome a global optimization problem and to remove uncertainty in the part alignment. Errors introduced by pupil distortion were avoided by moving the stop to the plane of the sensor in the design program. Measurements from a defocused sphere were successfully calibrated using reverse optimization. A surface departure of 100λ was calibrated to better than λ/4 PV. Because the interferometer could not be characterized sufficiently for calibration of measurements from aspheres, simulations were conducted. A lens design program was used to develop an accurate model of an interferometer, including simulated fabrication, alignment, and characterization errors. Reverse optimization was applied using wavefronts generated by the model. Testing was simulated for several conic asphere surfaces. Reverse optimization yielded calibration to λ/4 PV for conic aspheres with surface departures as large as 300λ. The results suggest that it is feasible to calibrate non-null measurements of aspheric surfaces using reverse optimization.

Preclinical single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is an essential tool for studying progression, response to treatment, and physiological changes in small animal models of human disease. The wide range of imaging applications is often limited by the static design of many preclinical SPECT systems. We have developed a prototype imaging system that replaces the standard static pinhole aperture with two sets of movable, keel-edged copper-tungsten blades configured as crossed (skewed) slits. These apertures can be positioned independently between the object and detector, producing an anamorphic image in which the axial and transaxial magnications are not constrained to be equal. We incorporated a 60 mm x 60 mm, millimeter-thick megapixel silicon double-sided strip detector that permits ultrahigh-resolution imaging. While the stopping power of silicon is low for many common clinical radioisotopes, its performance is sufficient in the range of 20-60 keV to allow practical imaging experiments. The low-energy emissions of ¹²⁵I fall within this energy window, and the 60-day half life provides an advantage for longitudinal studies. The flexible nature of this system allows the future application of adaptive imaging techniques. We have demonstrated ~225-μm axial and ~175-μm transaxial resolution across a 2.65 cm³ cylindrical field of view, as well as the capability for simultaneous multi-isotope acquisitions. We describe the key advancements that have made this system operational, including bringing up a new detector readout ASIC, development of detector control software and data-processing algorithms, and characterization of operating characteristics. We describe design and fabrication of the adjustable slit aperture platform, as well as the development of an accurate imaging forward model and its application in a novel geometric calibration technique and a GPU-based ultrahigh-resolution reconstruction code.

We have selected two materials to study the stability of thin-films: (1) TbFe, a candidate material for optical data storage, for environmental stability study; (2) ZrO₂, a dielectric material for optical coatings, for thermo-mechanical stability study. In the research on TbFe sputtered films, we applied surface plasma resonance as a vehicle to study the optical constants of a single layer TbFe film and to study the instability of a multilayer system of TbFe, with protective layer Al₂O₃ and coupling layer MgF₂ (structure: glass/MgF₂/TbFe/Al₂O₃/air), as a function of time. The results show that with our multilayer system there was only slight environmental instability during the first day and the system stabilized thereafter. However the TbFe film did exhibit some oxidation on exposure to 200°C for two hours. Water, which may penetrate into the MgF₂ layer from the side may accelerate the oxidation. It is therefore necessary to have side protection and to avoid long period exposure to high temperature. In the research on ZrO₂ evaporated films, with and without ion-assisted deposition (IAD), we performed interferometry in a vacuum oven to study total stress of films as a function of temperature. On thermal cycling, all the plots of stress versus temperature for IAD and non-IAD films exhibit hysteresis. In order to understand the hysteresis, we studied microstructure and water effects. The results show that the likely mechanisms are water desorption, recrystallization and phase transformation and we believe that a combination of all three occurred. Our results also show that ion assisted deposition (increasing deposition temperature tends to give more tensile stress) and high deposition temperature (increasing deposition temperature tends to give less tensile stress) gave more stable films both thermo-mechanically and optically. It is well known that the thermal stress is due to thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between substrate and film. But if thermal expansion coefficients are to be derived from thermal stress, then great care must be taken to eliminate the water effect, otherwise, the results will be totally wrong. For better results, in-situ thermal stress studies are needed.

The dissertation addresses advancements in null corrector design. The Rayces zero-index concept is validated and used to design null correctors in single pass. By using a doublet field lens in the standard Offner null corrector, the overall length and size of the null corrector are reduced. The Multi-Object Double Spectrograph (MODS) blue corrector study outlines the process associated with designing and producing a null corrector. A novel ghost image analysis technique is used to evaluate candidate MODS blue null corrector designs. Tolerance analysis is performed and manufacturing specifications are defined for the MODS blue null corrector. Several off-axis null corrector designs are investigated as potential solutions to test 8.4 m off-axis elements of a 25 m diameter parabola. The dissertation also addresses advancements in null corrector certification. Truncated-series solutions for diamond turned mirrors and computer generated hologram certifiers for aspheric surfaces that can be modeled in lens design code are derived. The truncated-series solutions are general and can be applied to most aspheric surfaces with only simple changes in coefficients. These equations are implemented in lens design code via the user defined surface (UDS). The process of implementing a UDS is outlined in the dissertation. Once a UDS is identified, a two-step design process is used to create the certifier. First, the corresponding Shack surface of the aspheric surface or surfaces under test must be defined. Second, a point source illuminates the mirrored Shack surface and a certifier is placed at, in, or outside the center of curvature of the Shack surface. Because the rays go back to a point source after reflection from the Shack surface, a standard merit function that minimizes RMS spot radius can be used to find the coefficients. Certifier surface solutions are presented at the center of curvature and inside the center of curvature of the Shack surface for a broad range of aspheric optics. The solution for a certifier outside of the center of curvature of a parabola's Shack surface is also provided.

Remote Sensing Group (RSG) at the University of Arizona has a long history of using ground-based test sites for the calibration of airborne- and satellite-based sensors. Often, ground-truth measurements at these tests sites are not always successful due to weather and funding availability. Therefore, RSG has also employed automated ground instrument approaches and cross-calibration methods to verify the radiometric calibration of a sensor. The goal in the cross-calibration method is to transfer the calibration of a well-known sensor to that of a different sensor.This dissertation presents a method for determining the radiometric calibration of a hyperspectral imager using multispectral imagery. The work relies on a multispectral sensor, Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), as a reference for the hyperspectral sensor Hyperion. Test sites used for comparisons are Railroad Valley in Nevada and a portion of the Libyan Desert in North Africa. A method to predict hyperspectral surface reflectance using a combination of MODIS data and spectral shape information is developed and applied for the characterization of Hyperion. Spectral shape information is based on RSG's historical in situ data for the Railroad Valley test site and spectral library data for the Libyan test site. Average atmospheric parameters, also based on historical measurements, are used in reflectance prediction and transfer to space. Results of several cross-calibration scenarios that differ in image acquisition coincidence, test site, and reference sensor are found for the characterization of Hyperion. These are compared with results from the reflectance-based approach of vicarious calibration, a well-documented method developed by the RSG that serves as a baseline for calibration performance for the cross-calibration method developed here. Cross-calibration provides results that are within 2% of those of reflectance-based results in most spectral regions. Larger disagreements exist for shorter wavelengths studied in this work as well as in spectral areas that experience absorption by the atmosphere.

Envisioning novel fully monolithic fiber-optical devices, this dissertation investigates four fiber optical devices both, active and passive, that contribute to the goal of further integrating and miniaturizing fiber optics. An all phosphate glass fiber laser was designed in an effort to reduce laser intensity noise by reducing cavity losses and low mechanical strength that arise from intra-cavity fusion splices between silica fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) and phosphate active fiber in state of the art phosphate single frequency fiber lasers. Novel phosphate glass based FBGs have been fabricated utilizing high intensity laser pulses at 193 nm and a phase-mask. Net reflectivities of up to 70 % and a bandwidth of 50 pm have been achieved in the FBGs. The laser design comprised two of the novel FBGs and a short section of Er³⁺Yb³⁺ phosphate fiber to form a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser. The performance of the new laser has been compared to a conventional phosphate fiber laser. Particular focus was put on the laser intensity noise due to its dependence on intra-cavity losses. Relative intensity noise (RIN) amplitudes of -80 dB/Hz have been measured for both lasers when operating at comparable output powers. For similar levels of absorbed pump power the relaxation oscillation frequencies (ROF) were shifted towards lower frequencies in the new laser. ExcessFBG scattering losses and mode-field miss-match between the active and passive fiber limited the output power of the new laser to 16 mW compared to 140 mW in the conventional laser. A monolithic all-phosphate glass fiber laser with up to 550 mW output power that is operating at a single longitudinal mode and exhibiting narrow linewidth is presented. The laser cavity has been formed by inscribing FBGs directly into heavily Er³⁺Yb³⁺ doped phosphate glass fiber using femtosecond laser pulses and a phase mask, completely eliminating the need for intra-cavity fusion splices. A linewidth of less than 60 kHz and relaxation oscillation peak amplitudes below -100 dB/Hz without active suppression of RIN have been measured. The compact form factor and higher output power combined with the low noise and narrow linewidth characteristic make this laser an ideal candidate for ranging, interferometry and sensing applications. Strong and robust Bragg gratings in optical fiber fabricated from highly photosensitive photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass are demonstrated. The fibers were drawn at 900 °C from a machined PTR-glass preform. A low power two beam interference pattern from a continuous wave (cw) He-Cd laser with a wavelength of 325 nm was used to write gratings into the fibers, achieving peak grating strengths of 20 dB and a spectral width of 45 pm. The gratings showed no sign of degradation when exposed to a high temperature environment of 425 °C for several hours. This is significantly higher when compared to standard Telecom FBGs which are rated for operation temperatures below 200 °C. A detailed study of novel mode-field adapters (MFA) based on multi-mode interference in graded index multi-mode fibers (GIMF) is presented. MFAs are often used in cases when low coupling losses between single mode fibers with very different mode-field diameters are needed. Here a new type of MFAs has been fabricated and characterized from a selection of commercially available single mode and graded index fibers. Compared to existing techniques the presented MFAs can be fabricated very quickly and are not limited to certain fiber types. Insertion losses of 0:5 dB over a spectral range of several hundred nm have been obtained with an ultra compact MFA with a length of 275 μm.