Better management of riparian areas has been promoted by public agencies for almost 2 decades. Recently, however, efforts have been intensified because serious conservation concerns remain. To achieve mandated conservation goals for water quality and wildlife will require widespread acceptance and application of recommended riparian practices. Success of riparian programs in the Great Plains will require recognition of differences between the interests of public agencies and those of private landowners and the development of an approach to riparian management that can accommodate both.

This research investigated the potential for using cattle grazing pressure (AU Mg-1 ha-1) and stocking rate (Animal Unit Days ha-1) for predicting basal scarring and browsing of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) seedlings on cutblocks in southern British Columbia from 1989 to 1992. Cattle browsing on lodgepole pine seedlings occurred almost exclusively during the first 2 years of grazing. Browsing increased (P < 0.05; r2=0.71) with increasing stocking rate only during the first year of grazing. Browsing increased with increasing grazing pressure in 1989 (P < 0.05; r2= 0.38) and 1990 (P < 0.05; r2 = 0.39). Basal scarring peaked during the second year of grazing, but was correlated (P < 0.05; r2 = 0.79) with stocking rate only during the first year of grazing. Increasing grazing pressure was associated with higher (P < 0.05) basal scarring during all 4 years of the study, and likely better predicts trampling damage than does stocking rate, particularly during the first year of grazing. Basal scarring during 1989 generally increased to > 10% of sample trees when grazing pressure exceeded 12.0 AU Mg-1 ha-1. This threshold grazing pressure value of 12.0 AU Mg-1 ha-1, however, cannot likely be extrapolated directly to other sites. Grazing pressure values and associated basal scarring are unquestionably influenced by many factors (e.g., pasture size, kind of grazing animal, forage species, tree height, water availability, topography, and weather patterns during the grazing period). Nonetheless, our work provides evidence that grazing pressure provides a useful index for predicting the potential for trampling damage of lodgepole pine seedlings by cattle.

Uneven distribution of grazing negatively impacts rangelands through over- and under utilization of resources. The goal of this study was to quantify the role of experience on search pattern and foraging efficiency of cattle. Steers (Bos taurus x B. indicus) were exposed once daily during 15-20 min. sessions to 3 food-distribution treatments: VR (variable-random, food locations were changed randomly and daily), CR (constant-random, food locations were randomly set at the beginning and remained the same throughout the experiment), and CC (constant-clumped, food locations were constant and clumped in groups of 5). Pelleted feed was available in 20 out of 64 feeders arranged in 8 rows and 8 columns, with neighboring locations 5 m apart. Encounter rate of food locations was partitioned into search speed, total number of visits per unit distance walked, ratio of different (not previously visited within the session) locations to total visits (including revisits), and ratio of food locations to different locations visited. Intake rate increased (P < 0.01) as animals gained experience, but more slowly in variable-random than constant-clumped and constant-random. Residence time at food locations declined (P < 0.01) with increasing experience. Intake rate was negatively affected (P < 0.01) by search time per food location, which in turn was determined by the steers' ability to remember food locations. Steers in constant random and constant clumped used long-term spatial memory to return to food locations, and ignored areas where no food was found (P < 0.01). Conversely, steers in variable random used a strategy based on avoidance of locations already visited within sessions. Thus, in constant random and constant clumped food search was more efficient (P < 0.01) and concentrated in certain areas, whereas in variable random it was less efficient and more evenly distributed over the whole area. The results of this study suggest that impeding spatial memory could improve grazing patterns.

Leaf:stem ratio of grass stands is an important factor affecting diet selection, quality, and forage intake. Estimates of leaf:stem ratios commonly are based on a labor intensive process of hand separating leaf and stem fractions. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) has been used successfully to predict forage quality and botanical composition of vegetation samples. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of NIRS to predict leaf:stem ratios in big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.). A total of 72 hand-clipped samples of each species was taken from seeded monocultures in eastern Nebraska throughout the 1992, 1993, and 1994 growing seasons. Leaf:stem ratio was determined first for each sample and then the entire sample was ground. Samples were scanned by a Perstorp model 6500 near infrared scanning monochromator. Three calibration equations were developed based on using 18, 36, and 54 (1/4, 1/2, and 3/4 of total samples, respectively) samples. These 3 calibration equations were used to determine the number of samples necessary to achieve an r2 of 0.70 or higher for each data set. Big bluestem and switchgrass had coefficients of determination (r2) of less than or greater than 0.69 for all calibration equations except for the equation using only 18 samples of big bluestem r2 = 0.60). Smooth bromegrass had a r2 ranging from only 0.06 to 0.14 for the calibration equations regardless of the number of samples used. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy was a rapid means of estimating leaf:stem ratios in monocultures of big bluestem and switchgrass but it was not suitable for smooth bromegrass.

Native warm-season grass mixtures have been established on the Southern Plains under the USDA Conservation Reserve Program. We studied responses to N fertilizer on such pastures in western Oklahoma over a 4-year period. Experimental pastures were previously cultivated fields with loamy soils seeded to a mixture of native warm-season grasses. Fertilizer treatments were 0 and 35 kg N ha-1 year-1 as ammonium nitrate. Pastures were intensively grazed from early June to early August over 4 years. Stocking rates averaged 52 and 104 AUD ha-1 for the 0 and 35 kg N ha-1 treatments, respectively. These stocking rates are heavy for seasonal grazing in this region. Responses measured included forage mass and nutritive value before and after grazing, plant basal area, and livestock performance. Precipitation was variable but generally favorable over the study period. Peak forage mass was increased by N fertilization (2,480 versus 4,030 kg ha-1; P < 0.01), producing 45 kg forage per kg N applied. Nitrogen fertilization increased crude protein concentration in June (8.2 versus 10.3%; P < 0.05) and August (4.1 versus 4.6%; P < 0.05), but had inconsistent effects on in vitro dry matter digestibility. Total vegetative cover and basal cover of blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag. ex Griffiths) increased in the fertilized pastures. Average daily steer gain was not different between treatments (0.96 versus 1.02 kg hd-1 day-1) even though stocking rates were substantially higher on fertilized pastures. Steer gain ha-1 was increased by fertilization (83 versus 176 kg ha-1, P < 0.01). This resulted in a fertilizer N use efficiency of 2.7 kg steer gain per kg N applied. Nitrogen fertilization combined with intensive summer grazing provided a net return of 0.65 to 0.94 per kg N applied.

A 1 year survey was developed to identify conflicts and solutions to conflicts between hunters and ranchers. A questionnaire was mailed to randomly selected groups of 1,000 hunters and 989 ranchers in Montana. One-third of the questionnaire was different for the 2 groups and consisted of questions relating to background information. The other two-thirds was identical between the groups and presented questions related to perceived problems and solutions, big game populations, importance of private and agricultural land to wildlife and hunter/rancher representation. Thirty-five percent of the hunters and 42% of the ranchers responded to the survey. The top 3 conflicts between hunters and ranchers as identified by hunters were too little access to private land, driving off roads, and trespassing. The top 3 solutions selected by hunters were greater consideration and appreciation by ranchers, better communication between groups, and better boundary identification. The top 3 problems identified by ranchers were driving off roads, trespassing, and too many hunters. The top 3 solutions selected by ranchers were stiffer penalties for violators, better communication between groups, and greater consideration and appreciation by hunters. Both hunters and ranchers ranked driving off roads and trespassing in their top 3 problems and ranked better communication and greater consideration and appreciation in their top 3 solutions. Hunters and ranchers have different (P < 0.01) views of who represents them in hunter/rancher related issues. Forty-seven percent of the hunters responding believe they represent themselves or have no representation; whereas, 57% of the ranchers responding indicated they are represented by livestock producer groups. Results of this survey indicate that hunters and ranchers have similar concerns and better communication will help alleviate conflicting interests.

A study on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land was established in southeastern Nebraska to determine the effect of dormant-season management on subsequent-year growth rates and yields of tallgrasses. The purpose of the management practices was removal of standing dead material and litter that negatively impact plant growth and grazing efficiency. Treatments consisted of a control with no residue manipulation and 5 residue manipulation practices including (1) October shredding and leaving residue; (2) October haying; (3) October intensive grazing; (4) March intensive grazing; and (5) spring prescribed burning. The study was conducted in 1994/95 and 1995/96 on a switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) monoculture and mixed stand of warm-season tallgrasses dominated by big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and little bluestem [Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash]. The manipulation treatments effectively removed standing dead material without reducing yields in the growing season following application. Marked switchgrass tillers on the control plots increased (P < 0.1) in height at a more rapid rate than switchgrass on other treatments until late summer in both years. Rate of morphological development was similar (P > 0.1) for all treatments in 1995 and 1996. Rate of height increase and morphological development in big and little bluestem on the mixed grass site generally was comparable or slower on the manipulation treatments than the control in both years; however, big and little bluestem tillers grew relatively rapidly at the end of the 1995 growing season. Because the manipulation treatments generally did not increase tiller growth rates of the dominant grass species, potential harvest dates would be similar to those of untreated areas.

Research on diet selection is limited by inadequate techniques for determining botanical composition of diets. Our objective was to determine if near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) of fecal material could be used to quantify the percentage leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) in the diets of sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus). Fecal material representing diets of known percentage leafy spurge was obtained from feeding trials conducted in 1992 and 1994. In 1992, diets containing 87.5, 75, 60, 45, 30, and 15% leafy spurge were fed to 20 sheep and 20 goats. In 1994 10 sheep and 10 goats were fed alfalfa hay (Medicago sativa L.) at 0.5% of their body weight and ad libitum access to leafy spurge hay. Thus, the percent leafy spurge in the diet varied daily. Microhistological analysis was performed on fecal samples from the 1992 trial for comparison with NIRS predictions. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy evaluations were performed with a scanning reflectance monochromator. Calibrations were done separately for sheep and goats. Samples were divided into calibration and validation sets. Data from the 1994 feeding trial were analyzed to determine the appropriate lag time between diet consumption and fecal spectral characteristics that provided the best prediction. The average of the diet composition 48 and 72 hours prior to the fecal sample provided the best predictions for the 1994 trial. The effect of spectral outliers on prediction accuracy was also evaluated. Spectral outliers were predicted with equal or better accuracy compared to samples that were spectrally similar to the ones from which calibration equations were derived. The NIRS predictions were more accurate than microhistological estimation of leafy spurge in the diet. The final calibration equation had coefficients of simple correlation for validation samples of 0.91 and 0.93 and standard errors of prediction of 4.6 and 4.8 for goats and sheep, respectively. The results of this study showed that NIRS of fecal material can be used to screen large numbers of animals for phenotypic differences in diet selection and for making treatment comparisons.

The study determined the species components of the diets of small ruminants grazing mountain ranges of the Montseny Biosphere Reserve (Catalunya, NE Spain). Three mixed flocks of sheep and goats, led by shepherds, were monitored for a year. Animals grazed a mountain rangeland composed of Quercus ilex woodland and Calluna-Erica heathland during the day and were returned to their corrals every night. Diet selection was estimated using fecal analysis. Of the 111 species that were identified, 71 were common to both sheep and goat. Of these, 23 were represented in proportions of more than 1% of the annual diet. Even though goats and sheep grazed together, their diets were significantly different (p < 0.0001), the animal factor accounting for 18% to 60% of the total variation among the main diet components. Variation between seasons was also a major (5% to 56%) highly significant factor, while differences between flocks accounted for a significant, but relatively small part (3 % to 10% ) of the total variation in diet. The outstanding difference was the avoidance of the tree, Quercus ilex, by the sheep while the goats selected it throughout the year. Sheep selected graminoids throughout the year while goats tended to avoid them. For the rest there was substantial overlap in species composition between the diet of sheep and goats, especially when analysed over an entire cycle.

Diets of bison (Bison bison L.) were examined using microhistological fecal analysis in a 2-yr study on a tallgrass prairie site in northcentral Oklahoma. Graminoids comprised at least 98% of the diet across all seasons. Bison showed strong feeding selectivity; grasses and sedges formed a significantly higher proportion of diets than was generally available in herbage on the landscape. Bison avoided forbs, which were less than or equal to 2% of the diet. Sedges were a large (17-44%) diet component in winter and spring but decreased substantially during summer and fall (11-16%). These changes in sedge use corresponded to seasonal variation in sedge availability. Our results confirm that bison are primarily grazers in prairie habitats, potentially having a significant role in shaping structure and function of tallgrass prairie.