Some have argued that federal grazing preferences or permits are a form of private property and should be recognized as such by the federal government. This viewpoint studies the grazing controversy from 2 perspectives; legal and theoretical. A strict analysis of statutes and case law reveals some ambiguity in the law, but little that clearly supports the private property rights argument. A second analysis of several more theoretical approaches to the issue reveals a stronger case for private property based on the idea of customary use, as embodied in certain interpretations of the public trust doctrine and other alternative views. Because the non-legal argument is much more persuasive, it should be utilized more frequently by private property advocates. Opponents of the private property argument should consider that simple legal victory is often an inadequate solution to conflicts such as the grazing rights controversy. Advocates on both sides, as well as range managers and others simply wanting a better understanding of the issue, should make an effort to view the controversy from both of the perspectives presented here. Failure to do so will likely result in more lawsuits, more damaging controversy, and a continued lack of resolution to the conflict.

State and transition (ST) descriptions of rangeland vegetation dynamics provide information on current perceptions of explicit causes of change in dominant vegetation. Structural attributes of ST applications allow an evaluation of the complexity of the ST model and comparisons with the organization of the traditional succession-retrogression model of secondary succession. An analysis of 29 applications of the ST model revealed consistent trends. The number of transitions connecting states showed a less-than-expected increase with the size of the application. This is probably associated with limitations to interpret complex relationships and a need to produce relatively simple applications. Larger applications exhibited a shift towards stable states with pivotal positions within structures less connected (ie., with fewer transitions) than expected by chance for a given number of states. Thus, some stable states assume key intermediary roles as the number of states considered increases. It is debatable whether this is a property of larger systems or an effect of modeling bias. The analysis of causes of vegetation change confirmed current perceptions about the importance of man-related sources of disturbance. Grazing, fire, and control of woody plant species are visualized as the most relevant man-related agents of change. Some ST applications retain autogenic behaviors embedded in transitions in spite of the event-driven nature of the approach. However, the ST model removes autogenic processes from their central role as general causes for vegetation change. This approach is theoretically very limited because no general properties or attributes of the components (e.g., plant species assemblages, individual species) or processes (e.g., growth, reproduction, mineralization) of the system are used in any comprehensive way to generate predictive rules of wider than local relevance. Alternative approaches are suggested that would allow ecological generalizations and comparisons across systems.

Results of a 1985 survey of California hardwood rangeland landowners were used to develop a multi-agency research and extension program known as the Integrated Hardwood Range Management Program. In 1992, the same properties were re-surveyed. Although the results cannot prove the program is the sole or direct agent of change, program-sponsored education and research aimed at encouraging oak rangeland owners to change oak management practices is reflected in changes in key landowner behaviors. Program-sponsored research showed that intermediate levels of oak canopy cover did not significantly reduce forage production. Concurrently, landowners have significantly reduced the clearing of oaks for forage production. Other significant changes are reduction of cutting of living oaks for any reason, reduced cutting of oaks for fuelwood, increased use of oak promoting practices, and a growing awareness of the need to be concerned about the status of oaks. Landowners who were aware of the resource benefits of having oaks, or who believed oaks were threatened, or who had been in contact with a natural resource advisory service were significantly more likely to carry out oak-promoting practices. Between 1985 and 1992, many properties changed hands: 24% of parcels were sold but remained intact, while an additional 11% were subdivided. As was found in 1985, owners of smaller properties manage for different and more diverse goals than those of larger properties. The changing pattern of hardwood rangeland land ownership will have an impact on education and conservation programs.

We measured the impact of prescribed summer and winter burns on vegetation characteristics and spring abundance of birds in a Spartina/Paspalum grassland at Matagorda Island National Wildlife Refuge and State Natural Area, Texas, 1993-94. We burned 8 (4 summer burn, 4 winter burn), 122-ha plots. We estimated bird abundance by surveying once a week from March through May at 12-16 fixed-radius point count stations in each plot. We measured forb and grass foliar cover, litter depth, visual obstruction, and woody and residual stem density at each point count station 6-10 months after burning and 18-22 months after burning and found few differences in vegetation between summer and winter burns. Litter depth, visual obstruction, and woody stem density values were greater on control plots 6 to 10 months post-burn. By 18 to 22 months post-burn, only litter depth and visual obstruction remained higher on control plots than on either burn treatment. At 6 to 10 months after burning, wrens were more abundant on control plots and sparrows were more abundant on the burned plots. By 18 to 22 months post-burn, wren abundance had increased on the burned plots, but was still highest on control plots. Sparrow abundance remained highest on burned plots 18-22 months after burning. Precipitation was higher in 1993 than 1994; we believe blackbirds responded more to annual precipitation differences than to burning treatment. In this coastal island grassland, wren abundance was highest on unburned plots and sparrow abundance was highest on burned plots. We suggest that land managers could burn at > 2 year intervals in this grassland without negatively impacting most resident bird species.

This study evaluated the effects of supplementing a diet of range hay (5.7% crude protein, 68% NDF) with grass hay from subirrigated meadows (16.5% crude protein, 53.5% NDF), or with a 70% soybean meal:30% wheat grain supplement (40% crude protein) on intake and ruminal digesta kinetics. Twelve ruminally fistulated steers were assigned to 3 treatments (4 steers/treatment) at 2 levels of intake. Treatments were: control, range hay; range hay supplemented with meadow hay (meadow hay was 20% of intake); and range hay supplemented with soybean meal:wheat supplement (supplement was 8% of intake). Intake levels were: ad libitum and equal intake (1.5% of body weight). Range hay was Yb-labeled, and meadow hay and soybean meal:wheat supplements were Er-labeled to measure passage. Intake and digestibility of range hay was not affected by supplementation (P > 0.05). During ad libitum intake, total intake (range hay + supplement) was greater (P > 0.05) for supplement treatments than for the control. No supplement treatment X level of intake interactions were detected (P > 0.05). Total digestibility (range hay + supplement) was greater (P < 0.01) for the soybean meal:wheat treatment than for the control or meadow hay treatments. Total digestibility was similar (P > 0.05) for control and meadow hay treatments. Ruminal passage rate (% hour-1), total tract mean retention time, and intestinal transit time of range hay did not differ among treatments (P > 0.05), but ruminal passage rate, total tract mean retention time, and intestinal transit time were greater (P < 0.01) with ad libitum than equal intake. We conclude that a meadow hay supplement produced similar effects on ruminal kinetics and intake of range hay as a soybean meal:wheat supplement.

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea Maculosa Lam.), a Eurasian perennial forb, is replacing many native perennial grasses, such as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis Elmer.), in foothills of the Northern Rocky Mountain region. Our objective was to determine if 3 summers of repeated sheep grazing would reduce spotted knapweed without impacting the dominant, associated native perennial grass. Each summer, small pastures were grazed for 1-7 days in mid-June, mid-July, and early September. Areas repeatedly grazed by sheep had lower densities of seedlings, rosettes, and mature spotted knapweed plants than ungrazed areas. In addition, the proportion of young plants in the population was less in grazed than ungrazed areas. Basal areas of spotted knapweed plants were greater in grazed (8.2 cm2) than ungrazed areas (4.0 cm2). There were fewer spotted knapweed seeds in soil samples from grazed areas (12 seeds m-2) than from ungrazed (49 seeds m-2). Idaho fescue plant density increased 40% in grazed areas from 1991 to 1994, but leaves and flower stems on these plants were 38% and 17% shorter, respectively, than in ungrazed areas. By 1994, frequency of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) was 35% greater in grazed than ungrazed areas. Grazing did not alter the amount of litter; however the amount of bare soil increased from 2.2 to 5.6% in grazed areas, while it decreased from 4 to 1% in ungrazed areas. Three summers of repeated sheep grazing negatively impacted spotted knapweed, but minimally affected the native grass community. A long term commitment to repeated sheep grazing may slow the rate of increase of spotted knapweed in native plant communities.

A series of summer grazing studies were conducted to evaluate cattle consumption of preflowering tall larkspur (Delphinium barbeyi [Huth] or D. occidentale [Wats.] Wats.) on mountain rangeland in Utah, Colorado, and Idaho during 1987 to 1995. Cattle ate little or no larkspur before flowering racemes were elongated. Consumption of tall larkspur by cattle was also generally low during the early flower stage, with some notable exceptions at the Salina and Manti, Utah sites. These grazing studies indicate that risk of losing cattle to tall larkspur is low if plants have not flowered. Even though concentration of toxic alkaloids is typically much higher in immature compared to mature tall larkspur, toxicosis is unlikely to occur because consumption by cattle is low. Many livestock operations can gain 4 to 5 weeks of low-risk grazing on tall larkspur-infested rangeland early in the grazing season, and this should be considered in developing grazing management plans.

The larkspur mirid (Hopplomachus affiguratus) is host specific to tall larkspur (Delphinium barbeyi Huth). These insects suck cell solubles from leaves and reproductive racemes, causing flowers to abort and leaves to desiccate. Cattle generally prefer lark spur flowering heads, pods, and leaves, and are frequently poisoned. The objective of this experiment was to determine if cattle would avoid eating mirid-damaged larkspur. A 2-choice cafeteria feeding trial was conducted to determine preference for mirid-damaged and undamaged larkspur. Four cows were offered a choice of the 2 types of larkspur in 10 min. feeding trials in the morning and evening for 5 days. Cows preferred the undamaged larkspur plants (0.8 kg +/- 0.08, SE) over mirid-damaged plants (0.1 kg +/- 0.03, SE). The cows were then turned out into a larkspur-infested pasture and consumption of mirid-damaged and undamaged larkspur was quantified by bite count. The cows did not select any mirid-damaged larkspur. Consumption of undamaged larkspur peaked at 17% of bites on the second day of the grazing trial, then declined as mirid damage on the plants increased. If the density of mirids on larkspur is sufficiently high to damage most of the leaves and flowering racemes, grazing by cattle may be deterred, and subsequent poisoning avoided.

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa Lam.), an aggressive Eurasian forb, is replacing many native perennial grasses such as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis Elmer.) on foothills of the Northern Rocky Mountains. We assessed biomass allocation, carbohydrate reserves (total nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations - TNC), and carbohydrate pools (TNC X biomass) as indicators of cumulative effects of 3 summers (1991-1993) of repeated sheep grazing on spotted knapweed and Idaho fescue. In early May 1994, we excavated 30 spotted knapweed and Idaho fescue plants previously exposed to repeated grazing and 30 ungrazed plants of each species. On grazed Idaho fescue plants, shoot (P < 0.02) and root (P < 0.06) biomass were 38 and 27% less than on ungrazed plants. In contrast, shoot (P = 0.26) and root biomass (P = 0.85) of grazed and ungrazed spotted knapweed plants were similar. Although grazing resulted in some minor differences in total nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations and carbohydrate pools of shoots, total nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations and pools of crowns and roots were similar for grazed and ungrazed plants of each species. Thus, carbohydrate concentrations or pools were not sensitive indicators of the response of Idaho fescue or spotted knapweed to the cumulative effects of repeated grazing. In contrast, aboveground biomass could be used to indicate the response of Idaho fescue to repeated grazing. By reducing shoot and root biomass of Idaho fescue but not spotted knapweed, repeated grazing may reduce the ability of Idaho fescue to compete with spotted knapweed when both species are grazed.