From Sexual Objects to Sexual Survivors: Exploring the Cognitive Inconsistencies Within a Media Counter-Sexualization Script

Abstract

Since the #MeToo movement of 2017, the modern media landscape reflects a set of two contradicting scripts in the media. The first is the dominant script where women are sexualized and encouraged to focus on their sexual appeal for men’s pleasure whereas men are encouraged to be sexual aggressors. The second is what I refer to as the Counter-Sexualization Script, wherein men are held accountable and punished for this same sexualization of women and women are valued outside of their sexualizing roles. Across three empirical studies, this dissertation investigated these cognitively inconsistent media messages. In Study 1, focus groups (n = 19) were conducted to conceptualize and develop items of the Counter-Sexualization Script. Three themes emerged in the focus groups: (1) Giving Women the Microphone, (2) Holding Predators Accountable, and (3) Consciousness Raising. These three themes served as the factors for the Counter-Sexualization Script measure. The identified themes informed 38 items for the Counter-Sexualization Script measure. In Study 2, I conducted factor analyses to examine if the Counter-Sexualization Script fit a three-factor structure with a separate sample of emerging adults (n = 605). Results indicated that the Counter-Sexualization Script fit a three-factor structure; 18 items were removed from the measure to improve model fit. The final Counter-Sexualization Script measure included 20 items and the three factors. Study 2 also established the convergent, predictive, and concurrent validity of the Counter-Sexualization Script measure. Results suggested that the Counter-Sexualization Script measure was uniquely distinct, yet negatively associated with similar concepts (e.g., self-objectification, sexism), demonstrated predictive ability with related concepts (e.g., heterosexual script endorsement, rape myth acceptance), and was positively associated with empathy towards rape victims; the Counter-Sexualization Script was not statistically associated with enjoyment of sexualization. Finally, individuals who had personal experience with sexual assault, sexual harassment, and were supporters of the #MeToo movement were the most likely to endorse the Counter-Sexualization Script. In Study 3, a 2 X 2 pre/post factorial experimental design (counter-sexualizing article and sexualizing article, sexualizing and neutral article, counter-sexualizing and neutral article, two neutral articles) was employed to investigate the effects of cognitively inconsistent media messages. Participants were recruited from Cloud Research and a large southwestern university (n = 308). Results exhibit that there are no significant direct effects from the message conditions on sexual aggression outcomes with one exception: There was a statistically significant interaction between media exposure to counter-sexualizing messages, endorsement in the Counter-Sexualization Script (pre-test score), and bystander intervention intentions. At low levels of endorsement in the Counter-Sexualization Script, participants who were exposed to a counter-sexualizing media message reported lower bystander intervention intentions. For the cognitive dissonance outcomes, there were no significant direct effects from the message conditions on psychological discomfort, counterarguing, or neglectful feelings towards the self with one exception: participants who were exposed to a sexualizing message versus those who were not reported greater psychological discomfort. Finally, mediation analyses exhibit that psychological discomfort mediated the relationships between the message conditions, neglectful feelings towards the self, and counterarguing. Results across the three studies have theoretical implications with sexual counter scripts and contradicting media messages. Also, results have implications for practitioners, media executives/producers, and parents regarding the affective and uncomfortable state produced by cognitively inconsistent media messages regarding sexualization.