The Mother of All Buddhas: The Formation and Transformation of the Cult of Zhunti (Cundī) in China

Abstract

This dissertation is an interdisciplinary study that delves into the cult of the Chinese Buddhist deity, the Buddha-Mother (S. Buddhamātṛ; C. Fomu 佛母) Zhunti 准提/準提 (S. Cundī; J. Juntei; K. Junje 준제). The research investigates the formation and transformation of the cult of Zhunti by exploring four key aspects. Firstly, this study challenges two dominant theoretical models that have long persisted in the academic community. The first model posits that the goddess Zhunti is a Chinese Buddhist deity borrowed from an Indian source, known as “Sinification,” while the second model depicts the persistence of the Zhunti cult as a continuous and gradual process, referred to as the “evolution” model. Instead, this study argues that Zhunti is a deity “invented in China,” with no indication of continuity in the cult’s development from the Liao (907-1125) to Ming-Qing times (1368-1911). Secondly, this research investigates the localization mechanism of the Zhunti cult, revealing that the folktale featuring the literary figure Zhunti Daoist (zhunti daoren 準提道人) created by the Canonization of the Gods (Fengshen yanyi 封神演義) and the shrine dedicated to Zhunti are two driving forces through which Zhunti was subsumed into the local pantheon, became part of local knowledge, and turned into a “real presence” for local people. Thirdly, through the use of both prescriptive and descriptive materials, this study uncovers another “secret” to the Zhunti cult’s popularity in late imperial China, the diversified devotional practices, including “ritualized practice” and “less-ritualized practice.” Finally, this dissertation establishes a criterion for distinguishing Zhunti and Guanyin by comparing their textual and visual images. It also demonstrates how the boundary between Zhunti and Guanyin was blurred, thereby fostering the growth of the Zhunti cult. In conclusion, this study provides a potential model for future research on the cult of a single Buddhist deity. Also, by utilizing an interdisciplinary approach that bridges religious studies, literary studies, and iconography, it highlights the uniqueness of the cult of Zhunti and contributes to our understanding of the worship of bodhisattvas in China.